Sylvia Earle, in full Sylvia Alice Earle, (born August 30, , Gibbstown, New Jersey, U.S.), American oceanographer and explorer known for her research on marine algae and her books and documentaries designed to raise awareness of the threats that overfishing and pollution pose to the world’s oceans.A pioneer in the use of modern self-contained underwater breathing apparatus (SCUBA) gear Jan 04, · Many philosophy subjects at Oxford are ranked highly in the most recent Philosophical Gourmet Report’s breakdown of programmes by speciality (): philosophy of language, metaphysics, epistemology, philosophical logic, philosophy of religion, normative ethics, applied ethics, political philosophy, philosophy of law, philosophy of art Sep 04, · There is a significant theoretical difference on this matter between IPDs of fixed, finite length, like the one pictured above, and those of infinite or indefinitely finite length. In games of the first kind, one can prove by an argument known as backward induction that \(\bDu\), \(\bDu\) is the only subgame perfect equilibrium
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Galileo Galilei — has always played a key role in any history of science, as well as many histories of philosophy. He is a—if not the —central figure of the Scientific Revolution of the seventeenth century. His role in promoting the Copernican theory and his travails and trials with the Roman Church are stories that still require re-telling. Galileo was born in Pisa on February 15, By the time he died on January 8, but for problems with the date, see Machamer b, 24—25he was as famous as any person in Europe.
Inthey resettled the family in Florence. As a boy, Galileo was tutored privately and, average philosophy dissertation length, for a time, by the monks at Vallombrosa, where he considered a religious vocation and may have started a novitiate.
He returned home, average philosophy dissertation length, however, and then enrolled for a medical degree at the University of Pisa in He never completed this degree, but instead studied mathematics, average philosophy dissertation length, notably with Ostilio Ricci, a mathematics teacher attached to the Tuscan court and the Florentine Accademia del Disegno. After leaving university, Galileo worked as a private mathematics tutor around Florence and Siena and cultivated the support of leading mathematicians.
He visited Christoph Clavius, professor at the Jesuit Collegio Romano, and corresponded with the engineer Guildobaldo del Monte, Marchese of Urbino. Inhe applied and was turned down for a professorship in Bologna, but a year later, with the help of Average philosophy dissertation length and del Monte, he was appointed lecturer in mathematics at Pisa.
Inhe obtained, at a much higher salary, a chair of mathematics at the University of Padua, in the Venetian Republic. Galileo also supplemented his income by producing a calculating instrument of his own design see Galilei and other devices in a household workshop, and by private tutoring and consulting on practical mathematics and engineering. During this period, he began a relationship with Marina Gamba, and their daughter Virginia was born in Inthey had another daughter, average philosophy dissertation length, Livia, and a son, Vincenzo, in In Padua, Galileo worked out much of the mechanics he would publish later in life, and which constitute his primary lasting contribution to physical science, average philosophy dissertation length.
However, these projects were interrupted inwhen Galileo heard about the recently invented spyglass, invented an improved telescope, and used it to make astounding celestial discoveries. He rushed these into print in Sidereus Nuncius Starry Messengerwhich appeared in March and launched Galileo onto average philosophy dissertation length world stage.
Among others, Johannes Kepler, Imperial Mathematician at Prague, lauded the work Kepler Clavius and his colleagues at the Collegio Romano confirmed its results and threw a celebratory banquet when Galileo visited in His daughters moved with him and were shortly placed in the convent of Saint Matthew at Arcetri, near Florence.
Vincenzo and his mother, Marina, were left behind in Venice. Once a courtier, Galileo entered into several debates on scientific topics. Inhe published a Discourse on Floating Bodiesand inLetters on Sunspotswhere he first openly expressed support for Copernican heliocentrism.
In —14, Galileo entered into discussions of Copernicanism through his student Benedetto Castelli, and wrote a Letter to Castelli defending the doctrine from theological objections. Meanwhile, it had become known that Copernicanism was under scrutiny by Church authorities.
Galileo lectured and lobbied against its condemnation, expanding his Letter to Castelli into the widely circulated Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina in and travelling to Rome late that year. Galileo average philosophy dissertation length was called to an audience with Cardinal Robert Bellarmine, a leading theologian and member of the Roman Average philosophy dissertation length, who admonished him not to teach or defend Copernican theory.
The details of this episode are far from straightforward, and remain disputed even today. See Shea and Artigas ; Fantoli InGalileo published The Assayerwhich deals with the nature of comets and argues they are sublunary phenomena. It also contains passages suggestive of atomism, a heretical doctrine, for which the book was referred to the Inquisition, which dismissed the charge. Galileo felt empowered to begin work on his Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems.
Printing was completed in Florence by February Shortly afterwards, the Inquisition banned its sale, and Galileo was ordered to Rome for trial. There is more about these events and their implications in the final section of this article, Galileo and the Church. Inwhile Galileo was confined to his villa in Arcetri, his beloved eldest daughter died Sobel Around this time, he began work on his final book, Discourses and Mathematical Demonstrations Concerning Two New Sciencesbased on the mechanics he had developed early in his career.
The manuscript was smuggled out of Italy and published in Holland by the Elzeviers in Galileo died early inand due to his condemnation, his burial place was obscure until he was re-interred in More recently, J. Heilbron has written a magnificent biography, Galileothat touches on all the multiple facets of his life. He is renowned for his discoveries: he was the first to report telescopic observations of the mountains on the moon, average philosophy dissertation length, the moons of Jupiter, the phases of Venus, and the rings of Saturn.
He invented an early microscope and a predecessor to the thermometer. In mathematical physics—a discipline he helped create—he calculated the law of free fall, conceived of an inertial principle, determined the parabolic trajectory of projectiles, and advocated the relativity of motion.
This is no small set of accomplishments for one seventeenth-century Italian, who was the son of a court musician and who left the University of Pisa without a degree. Average philosophy dissertation length figures living in momentous times are full of interpretive fecundity, and Galileo has been the subject of manifold interpretations and much controversy.
Philosophically, Galileo has been used to exemplify many different themes, usually as a personification of whatever the writer wished to make the hallmark of the Scientific Revolution or of the nature of good science—whatever was good about the new science or science in general, it was Galileo who started it. More philosophically, many ask how his mathematical practice relates to his natural philosophy.
Was he a mathematical Platonist Jardine ; Koyréan experimentalist Settle ; Settle ; Settle ; Palmieriaverage philosophy dissertation length, an Aristotelian emphasizing experience Geymonata precursor of average philosophy dissertation length positivist science Drakeor maybe an Archimedean Machamer awho might have used a revised Scholastic method of proof Wallace ; Miller ?
Or did he have no method and just fly like an eagle in the way that geniuses do Feyerabend ? Alongside these claims there have been attempts to place Galileo in an intellectual context that brings out the background to his achievements. Still, almost everyone working in this tradition seems to think the three areas—physics, astronomy, and methodology—are somewhat distinct and represent different Average philosophy dissertation length endeavors.
More recent historical research has followed contemporary intellectual fashion and shifted foci, bringing new dimensions to our understanding of Average philosophy dissertation length by studying his rhetoric Finocchiaro average philosophy dissertation length Moss ; Feldhay ; Spranzithe power structures of his social milieu Biagioli ; Biagiolihis personal quest for acknowledgment Shea and Artigasand more generally emphasizing the larger social and cultural history Reeves ; Bucciantini, et al.
In an intellectualist recidivist mode, this entry will outline his investigations in physics and astronomy and exhibit, in a new way, how these all cohered in a unified inquiry. In setting out this path, we shall show why, at the end of his life, Galileo felt compelled in some sense of necessity to write the Two New Scienceswhich stands as a true completion of his overall project average philosophy dissertation length is not just a reworking of his earlier research that he reverted to after his trial, when he was under house arrest and going blind.
Particularly, we shall try to show why both of the two new sciences, especially the first, were so important—a topic not much treated except recently Biener ; Raphael In passing, we shall touch on his methodology and his mathematics, and here refer you to some of the recent work average philosophy dissertation length Palmieri ; At the end, average philosophy dissertation length, we shall average philosophy dissertation length some words about Average philosophy dissertation length, the Catholic Church, and his trial.
Galileo signaled this goal clearly when he left Padua in to return to Florence and the court of the Medici. This was not just a status-affirming request, but also a reflection of his programmatic aims. What Galileo accomplished by the end of his life was a reasonably articulated replacement for the traditional set of analytical concepts connected with the Aristotelian tradition of natural philosophy.
His way of thinking became the way of the Scientific Revolution and yes, there was such a revolution, pace Shapin and average philosophy dissertation length see the selections in Lindberg and Westman ; Osler Some scholars might wish to describe what Galileo achieved in psychological terms, as an introduction of new mental models Palmieri or a new model of intelligibility Machamer ; Machamer, a; Adams, et al.
In their place, he left only one element, corporeal matter, whose properties and motions he described using the mathematics of proportional relations typified by the Archimedian simple machines—the balance, the inclined plane, average philosophy dissertation length, and the lever—to which Galileo added the pendulum Machamer a; Machamer and Hepburn ; Palmieri In doing so, Galileo changed the acceptable way of talking about matter and its motion, and so ushered in the mechanical tradition that characterizes so much of modern science, even today.
See Dijksterhuis ; Machamer, et al, average philosophy dissertation length. Perhaps he did not realize that this was his grand project until the time he actually wrote the Two New Sciences in the mids.
Despite working on problems of the nature of matter from onwards, he could not have written his final work much earlier than ; certainly not before the Starry Messenger ofand probably not before the Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems of He had thought deeply about the nature of matter before and had tried to work out how best to describe matter, but beforehe did not have the theory and evidence he needed to support his claims about a unified, singular matter.
And this he did not accomplish until the Dialogue, average philosophy dissertation length. Galileo began his critique of Aristotle in a treatise he drafted aroundtitled De Motu On Motion. For Aristotle, the matter of the terrestrial realm within the sphere of the moon is of four elemental kinds—earth, water, air, and fire. These possess two formal principles that give rise to their natural motion: heaviness gravitas ; in earth and water and lightness levitas ; in air and fire. Galileo, using an Archimedean model of floating bodies, and later the balance, argues that there is only one principle of motion—heaviness.
Bodies move upward not because they have a natural lightness, he says, but because they are displaced or extruded by other heavier bodies moving downward. So on his view, heaviness is the cause of all natural terrestrial motion. This move left Galileo with a problem: what is heaviness and how is it to be described? In De Motuhe argued that the moving arms of a balance could be used as a model for treating all problems of natural motion, average philosophy dissertation length.
In this model, heaviness is the proportionality of the weight of an object on one arm of the balance to the weight average philosophy dissertation length another body on the other arm. In the context of floating bodies, heaviness is the weight of one body minus the weight of the medium. Galileo quickly realized these characterizations were insufficient, and so began to explore how heaviness might be related to specific gravities; i.
He was trying to figure out the concept of heaviness that is characteristic of all matter. What he failed to work out—and this was probably the reason why he never published De Motu —was this positive characterization of heaviness. There seemed to be no way to find a standard measure of heaviness that would work across different substances.
At this point, he did not have a useful replacement for Aristotelian gravitas. A while later, in his manuscript version of Le Meccaniche On MechanicsGalileo introduced the concept of momentoa quasi force that applies to a body at a moment, and average philosophy dissertation length is somehow proportional to weight or specific gravity Galluzzi Still, average philosophy dissertation length, he had no good way to measure or compare specific gravities of bodies of different kinds, and his notebooks during this early seventeenth-century period reflect his trying again and again to find a way to bring all matter under a single proportional measuring scale.
He tried to study acceleration along an inclined plane and to find a way to think of what changes acceleration brings to momento.
Yet the details and categories of how to properly average philosophy dissertation length weight and movement eluded him.
Galileo accepted, probably as early as the draft of Le Meccanicheaverage philosophy dissertation length, that natural motions might be accelerated. Particularly in the cases of the pendulum, the average philosophy dissertation length plane, free fall, and projectile motion, Galileo must have observed that the speeds of bodies increase as they move downwards and, perhaps, average philosophy dissertation length so naturally.
But that accelerated motion is properly measured against time is an idea he realized only later, chiefly through his failure to find any satisfactory dependence on place and specific gravity. Also at this time, he began to think about percussive force. For many years, he thought that the correct science of these phenomena should describe how bodies change according to where they are on their paths. Specifically, it seemed that height is crucial. Since they generally work by average philosophy dissertation length static equilibrium, time is not a feature of their action one would normally attend to.
In discussing a balance, for instance, one does not normally think about how fast an average philosophy dissertation length of the balance descends, nor how fast a body on the opposite arm is rising though Galileo does in his Postils to Rocco circa —45; see Palmieri
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, time: 17:43Galileo Galilei (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)
Deadlines vary from a couple of hours to a couple of days. All depends on the length of your paper. If it’s a page dissertation, then naturally a writer will require a couple of days for sure. But if we talk essays, experts fulfill quality compositions overnight in a couple of hours Jan 04, · Many philosophy subjects at Oxford are ranked highly in the most recent Philosophical Gourmet Report’s breakdown of programmes by speciality (): philosophy of language, metaphysics, epistemology, philosophical logic, philosophy of religion, normative ethics, applied ethics, political philosophy, philosophy of law, philosophy of art Sep 04, · There is a significant theoretical difference on this matter between IPDs of fixed, finite length, like the one pictured above, and those of infinite or indefinitely finite length. In games of the first kind, one can prove by an argument known as backward induction that \(\bDu\), \(\bDu\) is the only subgame perfect equilibrium
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